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Psychological Mechanisms And Language Processing

Psychological Mechanisms And Language Processing

Psycholinguistics focuses on how people process language –how we comprehend and produce spoken and written language- and how these skills are acquired. In order to understand these language processes,we need to understand the major properties of language as well as the processing characteristics of the individuals who use it.

For this lecture, basic notions about the structure of language as well as basic grammatical concepts will be assumed already known.

The following concepts will be taken for granted.

1.      Linguistic productivity: this notion refers to the fact that there is no limit to the number of sentences in a language.

2.      Duality of patterning: words are composed of phonemes which, in turn, are composed of distinctive features. In each instance, the smaller units are combined in a rule-governed manner to produce the larger units.

3.      Morphology: words consist of one or more units of meaning (morphemes). The system of grammatical morphemes in a language provides speakers with a way of signaling subtle differences in meaning.

4.      Phrase structure: phrase structure rules codify our intuitions about the groupings of words in a sentence. Some sentences are ambiguous.

A.     The information processing system

According to this model of mental functioning, environmental information entering into the cognitive system is successively encoded, stored and retrieved by a set of distinct mental structures. The emphasis is on the flow of information through the system. Let’s first briefly give an overview of this model, before examining its relevance regarding language processing.

Sensory stores

The sensory stores take in the variety of sensory events to which we are constantly exposed (colors, tones, tastes, smells, etc.), and retain them for a brief period of time in a raw, unanalyzed form Sperling’s princeps studies.

Working memory

The second type of memory has been traditionally referred to as short-term memory (STM), and more recently as working memory (WM). Although the meaning of the words are similar, there is a subtle difference between them.

Working memory differs from short-term memory in that the term WM conveys a more dynamic view of memory processes. STM was usually viewed as a passive repository of information; WM has both storage and processing functions.

+ The storage function is similar to the storage credited to short term memory: we hold on a limited amount of information for a limited amount of time.

+ The processing function is related to the concept of processing capacity. Processing capacity refers to the total amount of cognitive resources we may devote to a task (and this amount is assumed to be limited).

Permanent memory.

Permanent memory, which is also known as long-term memory (LTM), is a repository of our knowledge of the world. This includes general knowledge (including the rules of grammar or of arithmetic, along wih personal experiences such as memories of our childhood and adolescence).

Tulving has distinguished between two types of permanent memory: semantic memory and episodic memory.

+ Semantic memory:

Refers to our organized knowledge of words, concepts, symbols and objects

+ Episodic memory:

Holds traces of events that are specific to a particular time and space.

+ Procedural memory:

Is sometimes distinguished from the other two memory structures. It specifically includes information about motor skills (typing, swimming, bicycling, etc.)

B. Central issues in language processing

In this section, we examine several alternative ways in which linguistic information can be handled by the information processing system that we have just sketched above. Different types of process will first be presented and discussed individually, before being applied to an extended example of language processing.

·         Serial and parallel processing

Serial processing refers to processes that take place one at a time. Parallel processing refers to processes two or more of which take place simultaneously.

·         Top-Down and Bottom-Up processing

A Top-down processing model, in contrast, states that some information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. Bottom-up processing is a processing which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of the lower levels of processing operate without influence from the higher levels.

·         Automatic and Controlled processes

Tasks that draw substantially from this limited pool of resources are called controlled tasks, and the processes involved in these tasks are referred to as “controlled processes”. Tasks that do not require substantial resources are called automatic tasks, and processes that do not require extensive capacity are referred to as “automatic processes”

·         Modularity of the language processing system

The modularity position is that the language processing system is a unique set of cognitive abilities that cannot be reduced to general principles of cognition. The alternative position stresses the interconnections between language and cognitive processes by emphasizing the role of concepts such as working memory, automatic processing, and parallel processing in language comprehension, production and acquisition.

C. Development of the processing system

In order to understand language acquisition, it would be helpful to understand the cognitive abilities children bring to the task of acquiring their native language. To this aim, let us ask to what extent the information processing system that we have outlined above is operating during the first few years of life.

Recent research, however, has suggested that there are some important cognitive similarities between children and adults.

Perceptual processing.

Short-term STM and Working memory WM

OF MICE AND MEN review

ANDI ILMI AMALIYAH

105 35 447 110

VIIA

                                                                        

OF MICE AND MEN

BY JOHN STEINBECK

The author  tried to tell the intent of the previous poem. In this novella is told there are two people who are friends and work together as farmers, they have big dream, that is having a agricultural land. George and Lennie are their names. George is a man who has a body that is small but clever, he was dreaming of their own land to farm along with his friend . While lennie is a man with a big body and his muscle, but he has a mental disorder. He dreamed about the little rabbits with his aunt clara, his dream to follow George, candy etc.

One time , in which George and lennie were converse , suddenly there came curley , son of the owner of the garden . He is a very proud and arrogant, he considers that it should be a strong man , then he is always challenging lennie to fight , at which time he was disturbing lennie to quarrels .

In the other hand, curley has just married a very sexy  woman that has dream to become a Hollywood actress , she always tempt  workers in the garden , but this woman died accidentally. she came to a room that there was lennie, in the same time, lennie had killed a dog and he was really worried about. When curley’s wife come, he was really afraid but she could help lennie to manage his feeling. After that, she temped lennie and asked him to touch her hair. Lennie did it, but when he hear something fishy, he shake her neck until she die. He never meant to do but it’s happened

But this ending is not encouraging because it turns all the dreams dreamed by every person in here is not done. They all got disappointment. Therefore, given the title of this novella is very different from the contents because the author intends to illustrate that humans could be like a rat.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND THOUGH

 

LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND THOUGH

A.    BACKGROUND

            In the use of language ( language in use ) is not just a communication device , but even more so in the use of language is part of the message in the communication . Brown and Yule (1983 : 1 ) indicated above by the term ' transactional ' and ' interpersonal ' , while Halliday (1994 : xiii ) explores the term ' ideational ' and ' interpersonal ' and add one more function , namely the function of ' textual ' . The term refers to a transactional or ideational function of language to send ' message content ' communication , the term refers to the function of language interpesonal to form a ' social relations ' in the communication , and the term refers to the textual function ' organizing ' combined both functions .

            Language can not be separated from human life , but the language was greatly influenced by the culture or society thought of the area . Many examples can be seen clearly as Bugis or Makassar , use of language , accent , dialect , etc, those are very different , even within the same province may not necessarily be the same language . Based on the above , the formulation of the problem to be answered in this study is : " What is the relationship between language , culture and social thought ? " The purpose of writing a paper is to explain the relationship between language , culture , and social thought .

            In general , the benefits of study of this paper is that the people who use the language to understand the importance of the relationship between language , culture and social thought that occurs in social interaction . In particular , as a resource for friends of students and teachers learning the language in an effort to educate students in the future .

B.     DISCUSSION

Language

Although generally speaking both the previous section and this one deal with language use, the perspective is somewhat different. 'Language and society' emphasized the factors of the social context which affect the use of language and the disciplines studying it, whereas this section will focus on disciplines which examine particular aspects of language use – interpretation of meaning in use (pragmatics), the structure of larger chunks of language (spoken or written) in some context (discourse analysis), written and oral communication across languages and genres (contrastive rhetoric), and various areas of applied linguistics, in particular foreign and second language teaching and communication

Culture

Cultural differences have also been noted in the ways in which language is used pragmatically. In American culture, new skills are typically taught and learned through verbal instruction (Slobin, 1979). In some cultures, new skills are learned through nonverbal observation. A distinction has also been made between cultures that encourage independent learning and those that encourage cooperative learning (McLeod, 1994).

Differences in the social roles of adults and children also influence how language is used. Home and school contexts may represent different cultures, subcultures, or both and may influence language acquisition in noticeable ways. Nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expression) and contextual cues (e.g., shared experience) have different communicative roles in different cultures (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2003). In some cultures, prelinguistic children (who are not yet verbalizing) are spoken about rather than spoken to (Heath, 1983). Children may be expected, and thus taught, to speak only when an adult addresses them. They are not encouraged to initiate conversations with adults or to join spontaneously in ongoing adult conversations. Additionally, in some cultures, children who enthusiastically volunteer answers at school are considered show-offs (Peregoy & Boyle, 1993). In some cultural settings, children are not asked recitational questions. Instead, they are asked only questions of clarification or for new information. Thus, when these children experience recitational questions in a school setting, they may be confused as to the purpose of the questioning and the expected response.

Combining the areas of study, language and culture, we come up with a seemingly ambiguous phrase 'language and culture studies'. It is actually the title of an academic course which is offered at many universities, especially in the USA, and is, most unambiguously and undisputedly, devoted to the study of the relationship between language and culture. Mostly, it is an introductory course, a prerequisite for higher courses such as Linguistic Anthropology, Sociology or even Cognitive Studies. The structure of the course may vary, as well as the particular points of emphasis, but they are chiefly comLanguageand Culture Studies

Though

Though sometimes simplistically viewed through its most obvious function of exchanging information and thought among people, i.e. through its referential, communicative aspect, language has other functions as well. One of the very important aspects is cognitive, which highlights the use of language as an instrument of thought and cognition, without necessary communicating the thoughts to others, as stressed by the very influential generative paradigm. The relationship between language, thought and reality has fascinated philosophers and linguists for centuries, so this article will necessarily be able only to outline some of the significant research. What we are primarily interested in here is whether one's language determines or is determined by one's world view. Extending a person's world view to culture in the broadest sense of the word, we shall focus on the relationship between language and its cultural aspects, rather than psychological ones, on the one hand, and human cognition, on the other.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS MIXTURE OF VARIETIES LANGUAGE

THE 4^th GROUP

Andi Ilmi Amaliyah

Andi Anggraeni N.E.P

MIXTURE OF VARIETIES LANGUAGE

A.    BACKGROUND

Humans and language can not be separated . As social beings , humans are required to be able to interact with each other . Here language plays a critical , ie as a means of communication. The process of communication in society not only take place in one language only, but can be more than one language . As we know that in many countries , even many regions and cities , there are people who can wear more than one language , eg local and Indonesian language or a foreign language and Indonesian . As someone who is involved with the use of two languages ​​, and is also involved with two cultures , a bilingual certainly not free from the consequences of the use of the two languages ​​. One result is a mixture that is done ( consciously or not ) used two language systems . In such circumstances , there are times when a speaker to replace the elements of language or speech level in talks he does , it depends on the context and situation of the language .

code switching and borrowing is needed in countries or regions that are accustomed to using bilingual or multilingual language support, it serves to align the opinion or speakers can understand each other with what they are talking about. therefore, our group discussed the variety of language, especially code-switching and borrowing to increase the knowledge of students in their social life or sociolinguistics.

A.    DUSCUSSION

Mixture of varieties language, mixture is classified in the language varieties; Code – Switching, Borrowing, Pidgin and Creoles

a.      Code – Switching

People required selecting a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code-switching. Code-switching (also called code-mixing) can occur in conversation between speakers’ turns or within a single speaker’s turn. In the latter case it can occur between sentences (intersententially) or within a single sentence (intra-centennially). Code-switching can arise from individual choice or be used as a major identity marker for group speakers who must deal with more than one language in their common pursuits. As Gal (1988,) says, ‘code switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.’ We will now look more closely at this phenomenon.

In a multilingual country like Singapore, the ability to shift from one language to another is accepted as quite normal. Singapore has four official languages: English, the Mandarin variety of Chinese, Tamil, and Malay, which is also the national language.

b.      Borrowing

Another way in which different variety may become mixed up with each other is through the process of borrowing. T is obvious what meant by borrowing when an item is taken over lock, stock and barrel from one variety into another. The completely unassimilated loan – word is at one of a scale which has at the other end items bearing non formal resemblance to the foreign words on which they are based. Such items are called loan translations.